The use of armoured vests is an additional burden on the wearer, and has an impact on the ability to function for military personnel. In light of the limitations of the number of rations that can be carried, the aim of this study was to determine the energy cost of wearing armoured vests and compare the energy cost of six different types of vests. In this pilot study, six well trained volunteers from a military training academy were chosen. Their basal metabolic rate was measured. Then they used six different vests in a cross-over study design, and their energy expenditure was measured using an indirect calorimeter while walking on a treadmill. Data from our study revealed that using the vests, energy expenditure was increased by an average of 2.7 Kcal/Kg/day over basal metabolic rate. However, there were no significant differences between the six different vests. Thus, we were able to quantify the amount of additional energy that is required for walking at a speed of 3.5km/hr. This study also revealed that there is no difference in energy expenditure between different types of armoured vests. Further investigation is required to study the effects at greater workloads to document the effect of the vests.

[ABSTRACT]   Full text not available  [PDF]

Abstrak Kajian ini bertujuan untuk membandingkan tahap perkembangan motor kasar kanak-kanak orang asli yang berumur sepuluh tahun di negeri kelantan dan juga Johor dengan menggunakan kaedah Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). Kajian ini berbentuk deskriptif yang melibatkan 80 orang subjek (Kelantan:40, Johor:40) yang berumur sepuluh tahun. Ujian TGMD-2 telah dijalankan untuk mengukur tahap perkembangan motor kasar kanak-kanak Orang Asli bagi kemahiran lokomotor dan manipulatif. Skor yang diperolehi ditranskripkan bagi mendapatkan skor GMDQ. Skor-skor ini dianalisis menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Versi 22.0 bagi membandingkan min pencapaian motor kasar kanak-kanak Orang Asli di dua negeri yang terlibat. Hasil dapatan menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan bagi GMDQ kanak-kanak Orang Asli yang berumur sepuluh tahun di Kelantan dan johor [F (78) = 2.55, p> .05]. Kajian menunjukkan subjek Tahun Empat di Kelantan mengalami masalah yang sangat ketara berbanding Johor dalam tiga pembolehubah utama kajian iaitu skor piawai lokomotor (SPL), skor piawai manipulatif (SPM) dan skor tahap perkembangan motor kasar (GMDQ). Kumpulan ini juga mengalami kelewatan ketara sebanyak 3.59 tahun dalam skor kesetaraan umur lokomotor (AEL) dan skor kesetaraan umur manipulatif (AEM) sebanyak 4.76 tahun berbanding umur asal. Ini menunjukan walaupun kanak-kanak Orang Asli mempunyai tahap kecergasan yang baik namun tahap perkembangan motor kasar mereka masih lagi pada tahap yang lemah. Dicadangkan pada masa akan datang satu pendekatan yang baru dapat dilaksanakan supaya perkembangan motor kasar murid-murid Orang Asli berkembang dengan baik mengikut umur kronologi. Abstract This study is aim to compare the level of gross motor development among the ten years old children in Kelantan and Johor by using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2). The study is using descriptive method involving 80 subjects (Kelantan: 40, Johor: 40) who are ten years old. The TGMD-2 test is conducted to measure the level of development of aboriginal children's gross motor for locomotor and manipulative skills. Scores obtained are transcribed for GMDQ scores. These scores are analyzed using Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 to compare the mean achievement of aboriginal children in two states. The findings show that there is no significant difference in the GMDQ of ten-year-old Aboriginal children in Kelantan and Johor [F (78) = 2.55, p> .05]. The result shows that the Fourth Year in Kelantan had a very significant problem compared to Johor in the three major variables of the study: locomotor standard score (SPL), manipulative standard score (SPM) and gross motor development score (GMDQ). The group also experienced a significant delay of 3.59 years in the locomotor age equality score (AEL) and the manipulative age equality score (AEM) of 4.76 years compared to the original age. This shows that although obriginal children have a good level of fitness, their level of motor development is still at a weak level. It is suggested that in the future a new approach can be implement so that the development of gross motor of Orang Asli pupils grows well according to age.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the range of motion changes and force production for running footwear with and without windlass enhancing feature, and barefoot, on the lower extremities during late stance phase of running. Fourteen healthy recreational rearfoot male runners (age 20.14+0.66 years, height 171.79+4.66 cm, and body weight 64.56+5.79 kg.) were recruited. Three-dimensional movement analysis and force production were collected by a motion analysis system and AMTI force platform, and the data were calculated and analysed by Visual 3D. The participants, barefoot and two types of footwear, namely running footwear with and without windlass enhancing feature, started to run along the runway with speed at 3.5 m/s (range between 3.33-3.68 m/s) for three trials in each condition. The repeated measures analysis of variance was used for analysis. A Bonferroni post hoc test was conducted between conditions (p < .01). The results revealed that the ankle movement barefoot and with the running footwear without windlass enhancing feature were significantly different from the running footwear with the windlass enhancing feature at the beginning, but that of barefoot was significantly different from the running footwear with and without windlass enhancing feature at the end of the late stance phase. The forefoot's range of motion barefoot and with the running footwear without windlass enhancing feature was significantly different from the running footwear with the windlass enhancing feature, but the vertical ground reaction forces of the running footwear with and without windlass enhancing feature were not significantly different. Significant difference was found between barefoot and running footwear with the windlass enhancing feature in force production. In conclusion, the running footwear without windlass enhancing feature offers more flexible forefoot movements, close to barefoot, but the propulsion is still the same as the running footwear with the windlass enhancing feature.

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This study is aimed to investigate the effect of 25 minutes of continuous active stretching – based exercise (STAxercise) on the flexibility and agility / balance of a group of elderly men. An experimental research design was used. Participants consisted of 20 sedentary males aged 60 to 64 years, who participated in this study having different weight and height. All participants took part in the “Healthy Generation Program” held in Petaling Jaya in 2016. They were engaged three times per week for 24 weeks of STAxercise interventions. All participants completed the tests (i.e. flexibility & agility / dynamic balance) before and after the intervention. The results showed that the participants had increased in inches in terms of flexibility and reduced in time agility - dynamic balance after 24 weeks of intervention. The present study recommends STAxercise as another approach for elderly people to practice at home. Future research needs to investigate the effectiveness of STAxercise with different modes of exercises other than the effects on psychological states of the participants.

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It is generally accepted that the implementation of high-intensity resistance training can lead to several physiological adaptations such as muscular strength. In recent years, many individuals have been attracted to weight training to increase muscular strength. One of the most important variables affecting muscular strength improvement is the training system. Two common resistance training systems are single set and multiple sets. Which training system is superior remains undetermined. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of 8 weeks single set versus multiple-set resistance training on upper and lower body muscular strength among untrained male adults. Twenty-four apparently healthy untrained males (age: 20.5 ± 1.8 years, body height: 174.9 ± 4.2 cm, body mass: 72.3 ± 3.2 kg, and body fat mass percentage: %18.2 ± 1.3) were selected randomly and assigned into two groups: single set (SS) and multiple sets (MS). Both groups completed 8 weeks of high-intensity resistance training (70-80% of one-repetition maximum) with 8-10 repetitions for 3 times per week which SS and MS groups performed one set and three sets of each exercise, respectively. Dependent variables involving maximal muscular strength using one-repetition maximum were measured before and after the intervention. Significance level was set at P < 0.05. No differences existed among both groups at baseline for depended variables. A paired Student's t-test and an independent sample t-test revealed significant increases in upper and lower body maximal muscular strength in both groups after the intervention (P < 0.05), and upper and lower body maximal muscular strength increased significantly more in MS group compared with SS group (%23.43 increase in MS group vs. %12.70 increase in SS group). The results of this study showed that MS resistance training had a significant better effect than SS resistance training to improve upper and lower body muscular strength after 8 weeks of resistance training among untrained male adults.

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The upper extremity is the most important part at the time in pitching, and every pitcher has a different style. Previous studies have shown that increased pitch counts have been linked to increased complaints of shoulder and elbow pain in youth pitchers. The purpose of this study was to compare kinetic data for the upper extremity on fastball, curveball, and slider potentially injuries. Twenty-four baseball pitchers participated in this study. After signing an informed consent form and placing forty-eight reflective markers on the head, upper extremities and lower extremities, each participant threw the ball fifteen times. Each pitch type was five meters away from the pitching marker from a standing position in an indoor laboratory. Kinetic parameters were calculated using software (Motion Monitor) to compute the musculoskeletal human models using motion capture data. Parameter of torques and forces were calculated using Motion data. Repeated measurement ANOVA was used to test the effects of pitching phases. Only forearm supination torque in the arm acceleration phase was significantly different. There was no significant different in other 18 parameters in four phases base on kinetics parameters data. Ground reaction force of fastball was greater than curveball and slider. Parameters of fastball also dominated arm cocking, arm acceleration, and follow-through. Only on arm acceleration did the curveball's kinetics parameters increase compared to the fastball and slider. Overall, fastball has more injury risk than curveball and slider in pitching phases. Increased kinetic parameters have been shown to have more injury risk. Interpretation data by analysing functional anatomy can be more useful in early detection of pitching injuries.

[ABSTRACT]   Full text not available  [PDF]

Abstrak Kajian ini bertujuan membentuk instrumen untuk mengenal pasti motif penglibatan remaja dalam bidang sukan. Instrumen Motif Penglibatan Sukan (MPS) dibina melalui dua fasa penyelidikan iaitu fasa penggubalan item dan ujian psikometrik instrumen. Pengubalan item soal selidik dilakukan mengikut proses Nominal Group Technique terhadap remaja yang aktif dalam sukan. Sebanyak 75 item telah terhasil daripada fasa penggubalan item soal selidik. Analisis faktor dan nilai pekali Alpha Cronbach digunakan untuk menguji bilangan faktor dan kebolehpercayaan dalaman data. Soal selidik MPS telah ditadbir ke atas 582 orang remaja yang aktif bersukan bagi mendapatkan analisis faktor dan kebolehpercayaan instrumen. Hasil proses analisis komponen prinsipal soal selidik MPS mempunyai 58 item merangkumi sembilan faktor iaitu Menaikkan Nama Negara, Kesihatan dan Kecergasan, Peningkatan Kemahiran, Inginkan Cabaran, Inginkan Kejayaan, Kebanggaan Keluarga, Kebanggaan Diri, Kestabilan Emosi dan Jaminan Masa Depan. Muatan faktor untuk setiap item adalah dalam julat 0.40 hingga 0.74 dan nilai kebolehpercayaan (alpha) adalah dalam julat 0.66 hingga 0.93. Kesahan kandungan MPS telah dinilai oleh tujuh orang pakar bidang dan telah mengesahkan MPS mempunyai kesahan kandungan dan dapat menguji dengan tepat motif penglibatan remaja dalam bidang sukan. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan instrumen MPS mempunyai kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi dan boleh digunapakai dalam mengenal pasti motif penglibatan remaja dalam sukan. Abstract This study aimed to develop an instrument to identify the motives of youth involvement in sports. The Sports Engagement Motivation Instrument (MPS) is constructed through two phases of research, namely the phasing of the item and the psychometric testing of the instrument. Formulation of questionnaire items was conducted in accordance with the Nominal Group Technique process for youths who are active in sports. A total of 75 items were generated from the questionnaire design phase. Alpha Cronbach's factor analysis and coefficient values were used to test the number of factors and internal reliability of the data. The SPS questionnaire was administered to 582 active youths for factor analysis and instrument reliability. The results of the analysis of the principal components of the MPS questionnaire consisted of 58 items, comprising nine factors, namely Raising Country Name, Health and Fitness, Skill Improvement, Wanting Challenges, Seeking Success, Family Pride, Pride, Emotional Stability and Future Assurance. Factor loadings for each item ranged from 0.40 to 0.74, and reliability (alpha) values ranged from 0.66 to 0.93. The validity of MPS content has been evaluated by seven field experts and has confirmed that MPS has validity of content and can accurately test the motives of youth involvement in sports. The findings of this study indicate that the MPS instrument has high reliability and reliability and can be used in identifying adolescents' involvement in sports.

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This research was based on the reality that there is no motor ability exercise model for football players with cerebral palsy. The coach has difficulty in handling the physical/motor ability issues, such as falling more easily, difficulty reversing and changing the direction quickly, less balance, and poor coordination. The main research problem is how to develop Motor Ability Exercise Model with Circuit Method for Indonesian CP football team. The research purpose was to produce a special circuit training model for CP football. The study design was used quasi experiment. The research subjects included 12 players of the Indonesian CP Football team for APG Malaysia 2017. The data collection technique used a modification of motor ability test and development (Research and Development). The research was started from November 2016 and has been completed in June 2017. The research result was the development of a motor ability exercise model with the Circuit Method for the Indonesian CP football team, which effectively improved the motor ability of the Indonesian CP Football Team in National Training for the 2017 ASEAN Paragames Malaysia. This included (1) a motor ability exercise model with circuit model for flexibility, (2) a motor ability exercise model with circuit model for strength (3) a motor ability exercise model with circuit model for balance and (4) motor ability exercise model with circuit model for coordination.

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Basically entrepreneurship is how to form the mindset, attitude, and behavior of people to become an entrepreneur. In addition, giving soft-skill to the students is also one way to equip students so they can have the character as entrepreneur. Soft-skill can be obtained through learning that prioritizes the approach of field practice, so that students can have real work experience. Segers (2004) stated that one of the key characteristics of effective learning and assessment models is to focus on high skills or competencies relevant to their future work. The aim of this study is to find out the role of field study for improving sport entrepreneurship's interest on physical education students. This quantitative study was conducted using a 5-point likert survey method consist of three dependent variables and one independent variable with 115 respondents from Physical Education students. The data showed that the value of R is 0.662, this indicates that there is a moderate or strong relationship between field study (X) on entrepreneurship interest (Y). R square value of 0.439 could be interpreted that the field study can affect entrepreneurial interest of 43.9% while the remaining 56.1% is explained by other variables not examined in this study. Through the result of this study, we could see that field study has role to enhance the entrepreneurship's interest, though there are other factors affect, such as the curriculum and educators.

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Current resistance training controversies include whether to emphasize maximum force and strength, or to focus on velocity and movement speed. The purpose of this project was to determine the relative contributions of resistance exercise force and velocity to peak power. Weight-trained men (X±SD; n=24, age=27.8±7.0yrs) were tested for one repetition maximum (1RM), peak power, force at peak power and velocity at peak power at 40% 1RM, 70% 1RM and 100% 1RM. All lifts were performed on a 45° leg press equipped with a linear position transducer to determine kinetic and kinematic variables. Mean 1RM leg press strength was 197±47 kg. Relative contributions of force and velocity to power at each intensity were determined using multiple linear regressions. The relative contribution of force at 40% 1RM=47.0%, at 70% 1RM=58.2% and at 100% 1RM=45.1%, while relative contribution of velocity at 40% 1RM=53.0%, at 70% 1RM=41.8% and at 100% 1RM=54.9%. These data indicate the relative importance of force and velocity to peak power during the leg press exercise. Although the relative contributions change depending on load, these data suggest that both qualities should be emphasized during training for high power.

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This aim of this article was to determine the contribution of physical fitness to Grade Point Average (GPA). This information is important for colleges for evaluation every semester. The subjects of this research were fifty students of physical education at STKIP Taman Siswa Bima. The data was collected through an Indonesian physical fitness test and other documentation. The data analysis technique used in this research was regression analysis. The data used for regression analysis include physical fitness data and grade point average. The results showed that there was a significant effect of physical fitness on grade point average of the students of physical education with p = 0.000 <0.05.

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Tujuan: Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti perbezaan skor aktiviti fizikal, jumlah pengambilan kalori, kalsium dan protein serta hubungannya terhadap status kepadatan tulang warga tua di Rumah Seri Kenangan (RSK), Cheras. Kaedah: Reka bentuk kajian ini adalah kajian tinjauan deskriptif yang melibatkan 117 responden (L=71, P=46) yang tinggal di RSK, Cheras. Kajian ini menggunakan borang soal selidik yang telah diadaptasi daripada Topolski et al. (2006) untuk menentukan skor aktiviti fizikal dan Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) untuk mendapatkan maklumat jumlah pengambilan kalori, kalsium dan protein serta penggunaan mesin kuantitatif ultrasound (QUS-2.) untuk mengukur status kepadatan tulang. Analisis yang digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah analisis deskriptif, ujian-t tidak bersandar dan korelasi. Dapatan Kajian: Analisis ujian-t tidak bersandar menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan pada aras kesignifikalan 0.05 terhadap (a) skor aktiviti fizikal iaitu responden lelaki (M = 4.51, SP = 1.25) dan perempuan (M = 4.17, SP = 0.71), [ t(113) = 1.834, p = 0.07 ]. (b) pengambilan protein iaitu responden lelaki (M = 438.61, SP = 23.57) dan perempuan (M = 437.28, SP = 14.50), [ t(115) = 0.376, p = 0.708]. Sebaliknya, terdapat perbezaan signifikan ditunjukkan antara lelaki dan perempuan pada aras kesignifikalan 0.05 bagi variabel (a) pengambilan kalori iaitu responden lelaki (M = 3058.21, SP = 332.68) dan perempuan (M = 2420.26, SP = 246.76), [ t(115) = 11.16, p = 0.000. (b) pengambilan kalsium iaitu responden lelaki (M = 2783.96, SP = 141.32) dan perempuan (M = 3847.89, SP = 96.42), [ t(115) = -2.69, p = 0.008 ]. (c) status kepadatan tulang iaitu responden lelaki (M=─2.22, SP = 0.42) dan perempuan (M = ─2.04, SP = 0.20), [ t(108) = 3.11, p = 0.002 ]. Ujian korelasi menunjukkan tidak terdapat hubungan signifikan antara status kepadatan tulang dengan (a) skor aktiviti fizikal bagi responden lelaki (r = 0.024, p = 0.842) dan responden perempuan (r= 0.251, p = 0.092), (b) pengambilan kalori bagi responden lelaki (r = 0.062, p = 0.606) dan responden perempuan (r = ─0.221, p = 0.140) dan (c) pengambilan protein bagi responden lelaki ( r = -0.044, p = 0.718) dan responden perempuan (r = 0.238, p = 0.112). Hubungan positif lemah dicatatkan di antara status kepadatan tulang dengan pengambilan kalsium bagi responden lelaki (r = 0.331, p = 0.026) manakala hubungan positif sederhana dicatat bagi responden perempuan (r = 0.465, p = 0.031). Kesimpulan: Kesedaran untuk melakukan aktiviti fizikal serta mengambil kalori, kalsium dan protein yang seimbang adalah perlu dalam kalangan warga tua untuk meningkatkan kualiti hidup mereka terutamanya dalam aspek kesihatan tulang. Pelbagai program boleh dirangka oleh pihak institusi penjagaan warga tua supaya warga tua dapat mengoptimumkan usia emas mereka dengan aktiviti fizikal yang bersesuaian serta pengambilan kalori, kalsium dan protein yang berpatutan, sekaligus dapat mengekalkan kesihatan tulang mereka. Abstrak Objective: This study aimed to identify differences in physical activity scores, calorie intake, calcium and protein intake and their relationship to elderly bone density status at Rumah Seri Kenangan (RSK), Cheras. Methods: The design of this study was a descriptive survey study involving 117 respondents (L = 71, P = 46) living in the RSK, Cheras. This study uses a questionnaire form adapted from Topolski et al. (2006) to determine physical activity scores and the Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) for information on calorie intake, calcium and protein intake and the use of quantitative ultrasound (QUS-2 .) machines to measure bone density status. The analysis used in this study was descriptive analysis, independent t-test and correlation. Findings: Independent t-test analysis showed that there was no significant difference in the level of significance of 0.05 to (a) physical activity score of male respondents (M = 4.51, SP = 1.25) and female (M = 4.17, SP = 0.71), [ t (113) = 1.834, p = 0.07]. (b) protein intake was male (M = 438.61, SP = 23.57) and female (M = 437.28, SP = 14.50), [t (115) = 0.376, p = 0.708]. On the other hand, there were significant differences between men and women at the level of significance of 0.05 for the variables (a) of calorie intake that were male respondents (M = 3058.21, SP = 332.68) and women (M = 2420.26, SP = 246.76), [t (115) = 11.16, p = 0.000. (b) calcium intake was male (M = 2783.96, SP = 141.32) and female (M = 3847.89, SP = 96.42), [t (115) = -2.69, p = 0.008]. (c) bone density status was male (M = ─2.22, SP = 0.42) and female (M = ─2.04, SP = 0.20), [t (108) = 3.11, p = 0.002]. Correlation tests revealed no significant relationship between bone density and (a) physical activity score for male respondents (r = 0.024, p = 0.842) and female respondents (r = 0.251, p = 0.092), (b) calorie intake for respondents male (r = 0.062, p = 0.606) and female respondents (r = ─0.221, p = 0.140) and (c) protein intake for male respondents (r = -0.044, p = 0.718) and female respondents (r = 0.238, p = 0.112). A weak positive relationship was noted between bone density status and calcium intake for male respondents (r = 0.331, p = 0.026) while a moderate positive relationship was noted for female respondents (r = 0.465, p = 0.031). Conclusion: Awareness of physical activity as well as calorie intake, calcium and protein is essential for older people to improve their quality of life especially in terms of bone health. A variety of programs can be developed by the aged care institution so that the elderly can optimize their golden age with appropriate physical activity as well as appropriate calorie, calcium and protein intake, while maintaining their bone health.

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The aim of this study is to compare the effectiveness of cold water immersion (CWI) and progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) on DOMS markers among young athletes. A total of 30 young athletes with mean age of 18.57 ± .504 years old, weight 61.92 ± 7.96 kg and height 170.67 ±7.57 cm volunteered to participate in this study. Participants were required to perform 20 reps x 5 sets drop jump (DJ) to induce muscle damage. They were randomly assigned into three groups: CWI (n = 10), PMR (n = 10) and control group (n = 10). Immediately following damage-inducing exercise protocol, CWI group were required to submerge lower body until iliac crest level in 15°C±1°C of cold water for 16 minutes; whereas control group applied the same position without immersed in cold water for 16 minutes. Perceived muscle soreness, range of motion (ROM) thigh circumference and the 20 meter sprint have been used as DOMS markers in this study. Markers were measured pre-exercise, post-exercise, post-intervention, and after 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours and 96 hours. The results of mixed ANOVA revealed a significant interaction (p < 0.05) in 20-meter sprint between groups and measurements at 24 hours and post-interventions, respectively. Conversely, no significant interactions were found in perceived muscle soreness, ROM and thigh circumference (p > 0.05). In conclusion, a single bout of CWI and PMR are not beneficial to elicit positive effects on DOMS markers used in this study.

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The objective of this study is to examine the correlation between the leadership style and athlete motivation among males and females adolescent athletes at SMK Dato ‘Lela Pahlawan, Padang Serai Kedah. There were a total of 64 respondents comprising 32 male athletes and 32 female athletes who participated in various sports and were experienced with coach leadership styles. The data collection instruments used in this study were Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS), which measured five leadership behaviours perceived by athletes and Sports Motivation Scales (SMS), which determined the three basic factors of motivation including the intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation of the athletes. The findings from Pearson product moment correlation analysis showed a positive and significant relationship between leadership behaviours and intrinsic motivation for male athletes in the training and instruction dimension (r = 0.64, p = 0.000, p < 0.05), and democracy dimension (r = 0.38, p = 0.032, p < 0.05). Meanwhile, for female athletes, analysis also shows that there was a low and significant positive relationship between the leadership behaviours and the intrinsic motivation on training and instruction (r = 0.62, p = 0.000, p < 0.05), democratic (r = 0.59, p = 0.000, p < 0.05), positive feedback (r = 0.50, p = 0.004, p < 0.05), and social support (r = 0.49, p = 0.005, p < 0.05). Pearson product moment correlation analysis found a low and significant positive relationship between leadership behaviours and extrinsic motivation for male athletes for the training and instruction dimension (r = 0.52, p = 0.002, p < 0.05), and democracy dimension (r = 0.51, p = 0.003, p <0.05). Meanwhile, for female athletes, analysis also shown that there was a low and significant positive relationship between the behavioural leadership behaviours and the extrinsic motivation on autocratic (r = 0.60, p = 0.000, p < 0.05), democratic (r = 0.51, p = 0.003, p < 0.05), social support (r = 0.50, p = 0.003, p < 0.05), and training and instruction (r = 0.41, p = 0.020, p < 0.05). Therefore, there were significant relationship differences between leadership behaviour of coaches and athletes' motivation among males and females and either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation towards the athlete. In conclusion, relevant parties, especially coaches who play an important role as leaders in the developing of athletes’ psychological aspects, especially motivation, can increase the satisfaction and performance among adolescent athletes.

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Neuroscience is a discipline in cycling performance that has become increasingly significant as its methodologies have developed and progressed. The methodological approach incorporated with technological advancements such as electroencephalogram (EEG) contributes to vast novelty in the area of sports neuroscience. As the nature of cycling performance works much with human and mechanical components associated with cardiovascular function and muscular force production, it directly involves the elements of neurophysiology and neuromechanics in applying sports science towards cycling performances. The integration of these two sub-disciplines of neuroscience is connected with brain activity function. Therefore, the authors aimed to develop a conceptual framework integrating brain activity into a physiological and biomechanical function primarily for cycling performance. This conceptual framework will offer a direction for future studies related to brain activity, neurophysiology and neuromechanics.

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