Athletes born at the beginning of the year may present advantages in terms of physical characteristics, motor ability or cognitive knowledge that could increase their chances for selection against their peers. This circumstance could lead to the over-representation of older athletes in an age-defined competition, a phenomenon commonly referred to as relative age effect (RAE). Although, a number of studies have demonstrated that RAE is apparent in youth soccer, such studies rarely investigate the performance advantage that likely exists across the birth month of the athletes. The current study aims to determine the presence of RAE in the under 16 Asian Football Confederation Championship (AFC); investigate the effect of RAE on the team qualification success; as well as ascertain the existence of RAE in choice of playing position amongst the soccer players. Data for the 2018 AFC under 16 qualifications matches were obtained from the AFC. A total of 719 players from 32 countries participated in the qualification competitions. Chi-square for goodness fit is used to determine the existence of the RAE across the players' month of birth while logistic regression is applied to analyze the differences of the quartiles' distribution with respect to the quartile, qualification status (qualifier or non-qualifier) as well as the playing position of the players. The results demonstrate the presence of RAE in the AFC under 16 soccer tournaments [χ2(4) = 21.53; p < 0.001] with the largest number of older players dominating the qualified team. Likewise, a substantial difference is observed with regards to the quartile and various playing positions of the players at p < 0.05.

The main objective of this study is to compare the execution times produced by fending off techniques of Seni Silat Cekak Malaysia (SSCM), Kaedah A for different movement trajectories. Three kind of movement trajectories for Kaedah A were carried out, which were Trajectory A (normal path), Trajectory B (curve path) and Trajectory C (starting by pulling the hand to the back and continue as Trajectory A). The experiments were conducted using a motion capture system. The movement position of the left hand during the execution of Kaedah A were recorded by a Kinect sensor, prior to storing and processing via Virtual Sensei (VS) Lite software. A total of four (4) experienced practitioners from SSCM were selected to perform Kaedah A techniques. The data acquired were further analyzed to determine their kinematic characteristics. The results showed that the execution of Kaedah A using Trajectory A produced the shortest time and highest velocity with averages of 0.071±0.007s and 6.438±0.863ms-1 respectively, compared to Trajectory B (0.087±0.011s, 5.230±0.578 ms-1) and Trajectory C (0.149±0.015s, 2.903±0.273ms-1). Therefore, Trajectory A is considered to be more efficient than Trajectory B and Trajectory C in terms of execution times and maximum velocity produced by Kaedah A.

Women with previous history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have been found to have higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Participation in adequate physical activity during and after pregnancy has been found to mitigate this risk. The main purpose of this study was to determine the status of physical activity among women with recent GDM during pregnancy and 8-weeks post-partum. A secondary aim of the study was to explore factors associated with physical activity during and 8-weeks post-partum. Physical activity status was measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). The data were collected during pregnancy through a self-reported questionnaire (n=336) and via telephone interview 8-weeks post-partum (n=117). The results uncovered a significant association between physical activity and status of GDM during pregnancy. Women who reported higher physical activity participation during pregnancy were less likely to have GDM. However, there were no significant association between physical activity participation and GDM status post-partum. Age was associated with participation in physical activity during pregnancy. Self-efficacy and risk perception of developing T2DM were associated with physical activity participation at 8-weeks post-partum. In conclusion, this study highlighted the different factors that should be targeted (for during pregnancy and post-partum) to promote physical activity among this high-risk population.

This study aims to determine the performance of the respondents in using the developed WebQuest in Google Site. This study used the quasi-experimental design method making use of pretest-posttest design. The developed teaching instruction was implemented among 30 Grade 6 Elementary pupils, while 30 pupils experienced the traditional lecture method. The pupils were selected among public schools enrolled during SY 2016 - 2017. Furthermore, the result of the study showed that there was a significant improvement in the respondents' conceptual understanding in the concept of the circulatory system. Moreover, the results also showed that there were differences between the post test scores of control group and experimental group. This strongly concludes that the WebQuest is really an effective tool in teaching the circulatory system. Respondents also revealed that the Google Site was enjoyable, entertaining, interactive and easy to learn.

Several studies have shown a positive association between variable resistance training (VRT) and improvements in muscular performance. However, the effects of VRT on body composition among untrained individuals remain unclear. The objective of this study was to examine the comparison between of methods of VRT on body composition, muscular strength and functional capacity among untrained male adults. Fifty healthy untrained males (age: 21.5 ± 1.95 years) were selected randomly and assigned into three groups: combined weight and chain (WC), combined weight and elastic band (WE), and free-weight (CG). All three groups completed 12 weeks of high intensity resistance training (70-80% of one-repetition maximum) with three sets of 8-12 repetitions two times per week. Approximately 65% of the whole resistance was provided by free-weights, while the other 35% of the resistance was provided by chains and elastic bands for the WC and WE groups, respectively. Dependent variables including body composition, muscular strength and functional capacity using bioelectrical impedance analyzer, one-repetition maximum and maximum repetitions to muscular fatigue were measured, respectively in pre-test, post-test 1 (week 6) and post-test 2. Significance level was set at P < 0.05. No differences existed among all groups at baseline for depended variables. A mixed model ANOVA with repeated measurements analysis revealed that although there were not significant differences in body composition among the groups (P > 0.05), all groups showed a significant reduction in fat mass and significant increase in fat-free mass during and after the intervention (P = 0.0001), and these differences were insignificantly greater in WE and WC groups compared with CG group. Furthermore, all three groups showed significant improvements in muscular strength and functional capacity during and after intervention (P = 0.0001), and muscular strength and functional capacity were greater in WE and WC groups compared with the CG group, but there were not significant differences in muscular strength and functional capacity between WE and WC groups. However, the WE group showed insignificantly more improvement in muscular strength and functional capacity compared with the WC group during and after the intervention. The results of this study show that VRT has a slightly better effect than free-weight to improve body composition during and after 12 weeks intervention. Also, WE training had a slightly better effect than WC training in improving muscular strength and functional capacity during and after 12 weeks of VRT among untrained male adults.

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of modified equipment on skill acquisition among novice badminton players. The participants (24 boys, 16 girls) aged between 7 – 9 years old, without any prior formal badminton experience, were randomly divided into four groups: standard racquet with standard court (SRSC), standard racquet with modified court (SRMC), modified racquet with standard court (MRSC) and modified racquet with modified court (MRMC). Children's hitting opportunities and stroke effectiveness were tabulated using videotaped and notated during a mini-competition after a five-week training program. The result showed that there was a significant difference in hitting opportunities between the groups, F (3, 36) = 5.178, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.301. The results in terms of stroke effectiveness also showed that there were significant differences between groups F (3, 36) = 4.178, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.258. Based on the results, the children who practiced using modified racquet with the modified court (MRMC), recorded the highest hitting opportunities and stroke effectiveness compared to the others groups. The participants who practiced using the standard equipment recorded less hitting opportunities and stroke effectiveness during the mini-competition. This study demonstrated the advantages for children playing using modified equipment with a smaller court. By manipulating the task constraints, skill acquisition can be enhanced among children.

This case study aims to discuss a proposal for identifying anterior cruciate ligament injury (ACL) risk by observing the variability of side cutting kinematics with respect to the development of fatigue. One participant (n=1) sustained an ACL injury while performing a side-cutting task during the latter stages of a soccer match a few months after a recorded laboratory session. Data from his laboratory session were then compared to matched samples of seventeen healthy, uninjured participants (n=17). The injured participant was found to have performed his side-cutting task with a lower deviation than mean variability before the later stages of the second half of simulated soccer match-play. Over time, the participant performed side-cutting tasks with increasing variability in sagittal plane kinematics, suggesting that compensatory actions may have been implemented to facilitate the task execution. This elevated variability may be indicative of an increased risk of ACL injury. Further prospective investigation is warranted to gain a deeper understanding of how variabilities may play a role in task execution performance with respect to injury mechanisms.

This is an epidemiological study on injuries and illnesses among Sabah SUKMA athletes in 2018. This study was done retrospectively using a standardized data registry. Incidence of injuries and illnesses were 16.27 and 16.74 per 100 athletes, respectively. Combat sports showed the highest incidence of injuries (45%), mainly involving the head and neck region. Common injuries included muscle strains and ligament sprains. The concussion rate was 1.85 per 100 full contact athletes. Time loss percentage was 1.4%. There were no reports on any severe head injuries or severe concussions. This could be due to the strict implementation of protective gear during competitions. The concussion rate was lower compared to many other international studies. Muscle strains was seen more in high speed sprinting and kicking athletes. The most significant illness affecting Sabahan athletes was an isolated case of mumps. However, contact tracing was activated immediately and there were no reported Mumps outbreaks among Sabahan athletes.

In this paper, a wearable front kicking angle monitoring device using flex sensor and Internet of Things (IoT) platform has been successfully developed and tested. The Arduino NodeMCU microcontroller processes and converts the input received from the flex sensor and transmits the real time front kicking angle and corresponding resistance data to the two main outputs; the ThingSpeak IoT platform and the LCD display for real monitoring. Thirty participants were recruited from two different backgrounds; silat athletes (n=20) and non-athlete participants (n=10). The participants were distributed into six weight categories: 50-55 kg, 55-60 kg, 60-65 kg, 65-70 kg, 70-75 kg and 75-80 kg. Based on the average angle measured from three trials, it can be observed that different participants had different averages and standard deviations for front kicking angle independently of weight category. Moreover, the background factor of the subjects involved did not greatly contribute in this research, as the participants from non-athlete background had the highest mean of front kicking angle (73.89 ± 17.41°). This situation is probably due to a lack of standard kicking styles set for all participants at the beginning of the experiment. Nonetheless, one conclusive remark that can be derived from the findings is the front kicking angle of an individual is greatly influenced by body weight, since the (75-80 kg) weight category achieved the lowest mean angle of front kicking for both backgrounds; non-athlete (14.00± 1.33°) and athlete (23.89± 6.44°) subjects. In the future, additional sensors such as accelerometer can be used to predict the stability of the body for better evaluation of front kicking angle.

Several studies have shown a positive association between variable resistance training (VRT) and the improvement of muscular performance. However, the most effective method of VRT to improve muscular performance in untrained individuals remains unclear. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of two methods of VRT on maximal muscular strength and endurance among untrained male adults. Fifty apparently healthy untrained males (age: 21.5 ± 1.95 years) were selected randomly and assigned into three groups: combined weight and chain (WC), combined weight and elastic band (WE), and freeweight (CG). All three groups completed 12 weeks of high intensity resistance training (70-80% of one-repetition maximum) with three sets of 8-12 repetitions, two times per week. Approximately 65% of the whole resistance was provided by free-weights and the other 35% of the resistance was provided by chains and elastic bands for WC and WE groups, respectively. Dependent variables including maximal muscular strength and endurance using one-repetition maximum and maximum repetitions to muscular fatigue were measured, respectively, in the pre-test, post-test 1 (week 6) and post-test 2. The significance level was set at P < 0.05. No differences existed among all groups at baseline for dependent variables. A mixed model ANOVA with repeated measurements analysis revealed that all groups showed significant improvements in maximal muscular strength and endurance during and after the intervention (P = 0.0001). In WE and WC groups, maximal muscular strength and endurance were significantly greater than CG group during and after the intervention, and there were no significant differences between WE and WC groups in the maximal muscular strength and endurance during and after the intervention. However, the WE group showed an insignificant more improvement in maximal muscular strength and endurance compared with WC group after the intervention (chest press strength: 47.94 ± 4.2 vs. 46.76 ± 4.4 kg, squat strength: 85.29 ± 6.5 vs. 80.73 ± 6.4 kg, chest press endurance: 16.94 ± 1.24 vs. 15.47 ± 1.58 repetitions, and squat endurance: 17.94 ± 0.74 vs. 16.58 ± 1.66 repetitions). The results of this study show that VRT has a significant better effect than freeweight resistance training to improve upper and lower body muscular strength and endurance during and after 12 weeks intervention, in particular, WE training has a slightly better effect than WC training to improve upper and lower body muscular strength and endurance after 12 weeks of VRT among untrained male adults in Iran.

Psychological factors are one of the contributing factors that could influence an athlete's performance in any sporting events. The survey-based study is aimed at evaluating pre-competition anxiety levels of sixty-four under eighteen male track and field athletes from different rural areas of Sabah. The evaluation instrument used in this study is the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2). The findings showed that there was a significant difference in pre-competition anxiety levels between track and field athletes (t = 2.088, df = 62, p <.05), with a mean pre-competition anxiety levels of track event athletes (M = 2.713, SD = .529, n = 32) was shown to be higher than field event athletes (M = 2.461, SD = .432, n = 32). It was also demonstrated from the study that the cognitive and somatic anxiety subscales were also significant (t = 2.140, df = 62, p <.05), (t = 2.623, df = 62, p <.05). The mean level of cognitive anxiety of the track event athletes (M = 2.667, SD = .734, n = 32) was higher than that of the field event athletes (M = 2.302, SD = .625, n = 32). In addition, the mean somatic anxiety level track event athletes (M = 2,500, SD = .766, n = 32) were also higher than field event athletes (M = 2.042, SD = .623, n = 32). Nonetheless, it was shown that the differences were not significant with regards to the self-confidence scales (t = -.413, df = 62, p> .05) with the mean level of confidence in the track athletes to be (M = 2.972, SD = .623, n = 32) whilst the field event athletes (M = 3.038, SD = .654, n = 32).

The main objective of this study is to measure the effectiveness of high-intensity intermittent functional training on aerobic fitness of youth badminton players. A total of 16 male participants of the 13 to 15 years old badminton players underwent a ten (10) weeks of intervention training. All participants must undergo a 20m Multistage Fitness test to measure their maximum oxygen intake ("V" ·O2max). The participants were randomly divided into two groups, Experiment (n = 8) and Control (n = 8) based on the results of aerobic fitness assessment. The Experimental Group will perform a high-intensity intermittent functional training whilst the Control Group performs the traditional training which is the regular exercise routine in their training program. After the 10-week interval training, there was a significant difference observed in the maximum oxygen intake ("V" ·O2max) between the Experimental and Control groups, F (1,14) = 4.663, p = .049. In conclusion, high-intensity intermittent functional training can improve aerobic fitness amongst youth badminton players.

Gross motor skills are important elements that are often associated with the activeness of children in sports and physical activity. The better motor performance level amongst children is reflected by the higher level of involvement in sports and physical activity. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the level of gross motor performance amongst children based on ethnic and chronological age. The subjects of the study consist of two different ethnic groups namely, Malays (n=38) and Indians (n=34), respectively. A total of 72 subjects aged between 8 and 9 years old (8.51 ± 50 years) volunteered for this study. The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2) is the instrument used in order to assess the gross motor performance amongst the children. Two gross motor components assessed were locomotor and object manipulation. The t-test analysis found that there was no significant difference on the level of motor performance between the ethnicities either in locomotor [t (70) = .31, p (.75)> .05] or object manipulation [t (70) = 1.65, p (.10)> .05]. Meanwhile, the results attained from the Gross Motor Quotient (GMQ) score demonstrated that all the participants regardless of their ethnicity, exhibited a lower level of gross motor performance compared to age equivalent standard score. In conclusion, ethnic differences do not affect the level of gross motor performance either in locomotor or object manipulation.

Relative Age Effects (RAE) is the effect of over-representation of relatively older athletes compared to their younger peers within the in the same age cohort. It is believed, that those born in earlier have been found to have a better physical and psychological advantage compared to the later-born individuals in their teens. This study is aimed to investigate the prevalence of RAE among the athletes who represented Malaysia at the 2017 SEA Games in Kuala Lumpur. The birth months of the athletes (men = 463, women = 362) were analysed according to the quarterly distribution: (Q1: January to March; Q2: April to June; Q3: July to Sept; Q4: Oct to Dec). The Chi-Square goodness of fit (χ²) test revealed that the effect of RAE was prevalent for male athletes in the first quarter as compared to the fourth (Q1: 33% vs Q4: 21%); nonetheless, it is worth to note that no RAE was found among the female athletes. It was demonstrated from the study that amongst the medal winners, the male athletes born in the first quartile (32%) were significantly more than the other quartiles. Similarly, the same results were found among the female medal winners but in the second quartile (35%). Therefore, it could be concluded from the study that the selection of Malaysian SEA Games athletes was influenced by the relative age effects.

Physical education is a component that can unify cultures, languages, and nations. The purpose of this study was to facilitate deaf students to get the correct information and motivation to participate in physical activities in their class. Multicolour Flag Game (MFG) is a research tool that is used in this study to evaluate the adaptiveness of the subjects. The physical fitness elements include running back and forth, zig-zag running, and running past obstacles. The total number of subjects that participated in the trial and test for phase I, phase II and Phase III are eight, ten and fifteen students, respectively. It was shown from the study that the cognitive, affective and psychomotor evaluation for the phase I is 93%, 94% and 83%, respectively. Whilst for phase II and III, the aforesaid evaluations are 96%, 94% and 87% as well as 98%, 96% and 90%, respectively. Therefore, it could be concluded that the MFG approach does significantly improve the learning outcomes of the subjects, and could be further used to entice challenged students in participating in physical activities.

The key objective of this research was to analyse and understand the effects of gender and age on body image appearance at age 12 and 15 in both gender groups. In other words, the study examines how age and gender influence adolescents' body image appearance. The sample chosen for this study included 1429 schoolchildren (710 boys and 719 girls) from primary and secondary in Tehran. The Body Image Concern Inventory (BICI) was used. The differences between body image appearances of boys and girls between at the ages of 12 and 15 were analysed and compared using the ANOVA test. The ranking of the four group samples was achieved by using mean of body image appearance. Data analysis indicated significant effects of age, gender and other interactions of the variables on body image on boys and girls at the ages of 12 and 15. The result reveals that in the same age category, boys were at a better level of body image appearance than girls. Also, the result revealed that the body image appearance level was better in the younger age category.